Summary of Key Points The intervertebral disc (IVD) is composed of the inner gelatinous nucleus pulposus (NP) and the outer annulus fibrosus (AF) and flanked by the cartilaginous end plates. The NP is composed primarily of various types of proteoglycans…
Key points The vertebral endplate is the key regulator of disc nutrient and oxygen transport. The endplate is composed of an inner bony and an outer cartilaginous layer in relation to the vertebra. Vertebral endplates are innervated so represent an…
Introduction Imaging methods of the spine have greatly expanded since the advent of X-rays for the use of plain radiographs (c.1895), providing anatomical clarity for diagnosis and treatment of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral vertebrae. The complex anatomy of…
Introduction Over the past few decades, the management of lumbosacral spinal disease has become notoriously difficult, whereby complex biomechanics and heterogeneity in presenting conditions have challenged treating clinicians. In response, classification systems emerged, leading to expanded characterization of disease and…
Introduction The subaxial cervical spine refers to cervical vertebrae located below the “axis” (C2) and is a critical distinction due to inherent biomechanical differences from vertebral levels more cephalad and caudad. Responsible for the majority of cervical range of motion,…