Introduction Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the cardinal motor features: rest tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity, and loss of postural reflexes. The pathological hallmark of PD is degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta…
Introduction Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is an established treatment for movement disorders with distinct advantages over best medical therapy and lesioning procedures ( ). In Parkinson disease (PD), for example, in addition to improving motor symptoms, DBS improves the overall…
Introduction High-intensity focused ultrasound is a transformative technology for noninvasive therapeutic thermal ablation using ultrasonic waves. The response of the tissue varies depending on the energy delivery to the treatment area, ranging from transient inhibition to therapeutic ablation. In recent…
Introduction From the first reported applications in pain ( ), the indications for neuromodulation have broadened over the years to movement disorders, epilepsy, spasticity, and psychiatric disorders ( ). Neurostimulation systems consist of metallic electrode contacts (either paddle or cylindrical…