Antigenicity Causes Immune Reactions of Blood When blood transfusions from one person to another were first attempted, immediate or delayed agglutination and hemolysis of the red blood cells (RBCs) often occurred, resulting in typical transfusion reactions that frequently led to…
The human body has the ability to resist almost all types of organisms or toxins that tend to damage the tissues and organs. This capability is called immunity . Much of the immunity is acquired immunity that does not develop…
Our bodies are exposed continually to bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, all of which occur normally and to varying degrees in the skin, mouth, respiratory passageways, intestinal tract, lining membranes of the eyes, and even the urinary tract. Many of…
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Diuretics and Their Mechanisms of Action Diuretics increase the rate of urine volume output, as the name implies. Most diuretics also increase the urinary excretion of solutes, especially sodium and chloride. In fact, most diuretics that are used clinically act…
The regulation of hydrogen ion (H + ) balance is similar in some ways to the regulation of other ions in the body. For example, there must be a balance between the intake or production of H + and the…
Regulation of Extracellular Fluid Potassium Concentration and Potassium Excretion The extracellular fluid potassium concentration normally is regulated at about 4.2 mEq/L, seldom rising or falling more than ±0.3 mEq This precise control is necessary because many cell functions are sensitive…
For the cells of the body to function properly, they must be bathed in extracellular fluid with a relatively constant concentration of electrolytes. The total concentration of solutes in the extracellular fluid—and therefore the osmolarity—must also be precisely regulated to…
As the glomerular filtrate enters the renal tubules, it flows sequentially through the successive parts of the tubule—the proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, collecting tubule, and collecting duct— before it is excreted as urine. Along this course, some…
Glomerular Filtration—The First Step in Urine Formation The first step in urine formation is filtration of large amounts of fluid through the glomerular capillaries into Bowman’s capsule—almost 180 L Most of this filtrate is reabsorbed, leaving only about 1 liter…