Chapter Preview Chapter Synopsis An expert understanding of cervical anatomy is critical to a spine surgeon operating in this region. An understanding of this anatomy is essential for surgical technique and diagnosis of pathologic processes. This chapter is a review…
Key Points Pathologic changes seen in facet joint degeneration include fibrillation, joint space narrowing, articular cartilage thinning, subchondral bone sclerosis, osteophytosis, and development of juxta-facet cysts. Risk factors for facet joint degeneration include lower spinal level, increasing age, sagittal orientation,…
Key points The vertebral endplate is the key regulator of disc nutrient and oxygen transport. The endplate is composed of an inner bony and an outer cartilaginous layer in relation to the vertebra. Vertebral endplates are innervated so represent an…
Introduction Imaging methods of the spine have greatly expanded since the advent of X-rays for the use of plain radiographs (c.1895), providing anatomical clarity for diagnosis and treatment of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral vertebrae. The complex anatomy of…
Introduction Over the past few decades, the management of lumbosacral spinal disease has become notoriously difficult, whereby complex biomechanics and heterogeneity in presenting conditions have challenged treating clinicians. In response, classification systems emerged, leading to expanded characterization of disease and…
Introduction The advancement of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has made high-quality visualization of the normal and pathologic spine, as well as associated neural tissue, readily available. Relative to plain radiography and computed tomography (CT), MRI boasts excellent visualization of soft…
Introduction The subaxial cervical spine refers to cervical vertebrae located below the “axis” (C2) and is a critical distinction due to inherent biomechanical differences from vertebral levels more cephalad and caudad. Responsible for the majority of cervical range of motion,…