Road Biking

Races

Riders

• Sprinters: Possess high numbers of fast-twitch muscle fibers for explosive acceleration; can reach speeds of 66.1 ± 3.4 kph (57.1–70.6 kph), with peak power outputs at the end of a Tour de France Stage of 989–1443 W and average power of 865–1140 W for a duration of 9–17 seconds. Sprinters take calculated risks in maneuvering through the pack, waiting until the last possible moment to move out of another rider’s slipstream and into the wind. A low shoulder, head-down position can lower the coefficient of drag area by about 10%, resulting in a more than 3-meter advantage over a 14-second sprint duration. The average professional male road sprint speed is 63.9 kph (53.7–69.1 kph) sustained between 9 and 17 seconds, and the average women’s professional sprint speed is 53.8 kph (41.6–64 kph) for 10–30 seconds.

• Climbers: Lightweight, possessing high levels of aerobic power, a high power-to-weight ratio, a $\dot{\text{V}}$ O ₂ max of 75–85 mL/kg/min, and power output measurements of 7.4 W/kg over 5 minutes, 6.5 W/kg over 20 minutes, 6.1 W/kg over 30 minutes, and 5.7 W/kg over 1 hour.

• Lead-out riders: Break the wind for their sprinters until the very last possible moment by sustaining high speed for a kilometer; generally lack the finishing top end speed of sprinters.

• Time trialists: Ride at a steady state for long periods; physically larger cyclists who can push a big gear and produce greater absolute power outputs.

• Team leaders: Riders for stage race overall classification; must be able to climb and TT.

• Domestiques: Sacrifice themselves for the sprinters and leaders by chasing down breakaways, carrying water, blocking the wind, or even giving a wheel or bike up to their leader.

Organizations

• USA Cycling (USAC): National governing body for bicycle racing in the United States.

• Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI): World governing body for cycling. Issues licenses, enforces disciplinary rules, manages the classification of races and points ranking systems, and oversees the World Championships.

• International Olympic Committee (IOC): Organization that oversees the Olympics.

• United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA): A nongovernmental agency responsible for implementation of the World Anti-Doping Code in the United States. The World Anti-Doping Code, which lists drugs and methods that are prohibited in sports, was developed by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

• WADA: Independent foundation created through a collective initiative led by the IOC. In November 1999, the WADA was created to promote and coordinate the fight against doping in sports. In 2004, the World Anti-Doping Code was implemented by sports organizations before the Athens Olympics, standardizing regulations governing antidoping.

• Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS): International institution independent of any sports organization to facilitate the settlement of sports-related disputes through arbitration or mediation.

Epidemiology and Injury Statistics

• Traumatic injuries occur in 38%–48.5% of professionals.

• Overuse injuries occur in 51.5%–62% of professionals.

• Two-thirds of traumatic injuries involve the upper extremity.

• Two-thirds of overuse injuries involve the lower extremity.

• Touring cyclists on a 500-mile, 8-day ride sustained 57.2% of bicycle contact injuries (32.8% buttock, 9.1% groin, 10% palmar, 5.3% foot) and 42.8% of overuse injuries.

• A 4-year study of 51 top-level professionals found that 43 athletes sustained 103 injuries (50 traumatic and 53 overuse). Eight (16%) remained free of injury, 22 (43%) sustained both traumatic and overuse injuries, 13 (25.5%) sustained only traumatic injuries, and 10 (19.6%) sustained only overuse injuries. Twenty-nine (56.9%) sustained more than one injury. A survey of 81 cyclists in a well-established masters cycling club found:

  • Eighty-one percent had a racing license; average number of racing years was 9.5, with an average annual mileage of 6000 miles.

  • Seventy-nine percent were seen in an emergency room, 33% had been admitted to hospital, with 15% to the intensive care unit.

  • Fifty-four percent had sustained fractures: clavicle, 22 cyclists; upper extremity, 20 cyclists; ribs, 20 cyclists; lower extremity, 11 cyclists; vertebral, 11 cyclists; pelvis, 6 cyclists; skull, 6 cyclists.

  • Forty-five percent reported a head injury; 34% reported a concussion, with 9% reporting more than one.

  • Seventy-five percent reported breaking one or more helmets from a crash.

  • Ninety percent reported having road rash.

  • Thirty-seven percent of crashes involved motor vehicles, 9% were the result of road surface hazards, 12% were the result of skill errors, and 10% were the result of mechanical problems.

  • Seventeen percent occurred in a paceline, 12% in racing, often criteriums.

Equipment and Safety Issues

• Bicycles should be inspected regularly. Tire pressure (pounds per square inch [PSI]) should be set at the proper amount; lower PSI in wet road conditions.

• Protective gear:

  • Helmets manufactured after 1999 must meet the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) standard by law to be sold in the United States. There is no federal law in the United States requiring bicycle helmet use. Presently, 22 states, including the District of Columbia, have mandatory helmet laws. Helmets are designed for one crash only. No helmet design has been proven to prevent concussions. Helmets are designed to prevent skull fractures. Cyclists should write their name, contact information, and medical information in the helmet for emergencies.

  • Protective gear: helmet, gloves, tight-fitting cycling jersey and shorts, chamois padding in shorts, sunglasses, reflective gear, arm warmers and leg warmers, vest, tights, booties, and daytime running lights on the front and back of bicycle. Covering of skin is more important than type of material for prevention of road rash.

Biomechanical Principles

Performance Testing

• Conconi test: One of the first tests to determine lactate threshold (LT) without directly measuring lactate; the pace at which the linear correlation between heart rate and velocity is lost is called the deflection velocity or deflection point, and is said to occur at the LT; a ramp protocol of increasing watts is performed in the laboratory with measurement of heart rate (HR); numerous authors have found the Conconi test invalid.

• Lactate threshold (LT) or anaerobic threshold (AT): There is no consensus definition. The original incorrect hypothesis: the point of exertion where the body goes anaerobic or into “oxygen debt” and rapidly produces lactic acid, causing fatigue and leg burn. The onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) was originally referred to as the effort level that corresponded to the point at which lactate began to rise exponentially—a blood lactate level of 4 mmol. Most commonly, LT refers to the effort (watts) that an athlete can maintain without a rise in lactate. The USOC Sport Science and Technology Division identifies the LT as the point at which a minimum increase of 1.0 mmol/L above baseline values is followed by another increase greater than 1.0 mmol/L. Maximum lactate steady state (MLSS): the effort level at which there is an equilibrium between lactate production and clearance, such that prolonged exercise does not result in rising serum lactate. Critical lactate measurements are power output at 2 mmol and 4 mmol. Lactate is a useable fuel, and training helps the body become more efficient at shuttling lactate for utilization to other parts of the body.

• $\dot{\text{V}}$ O ₂ max test: Traditionally a graded exercise test (GXT) with a ramp protocol lasting 8–12 minutes consisting of increasing load by 25 watts at 1-minute increments until athlete fails to maintain set cadence. There is no standard protocol. Measures oxygen consumption ( $\dot{\text{V}}$ O ₂ ), $\dot{\text{V}}$ CO _2, respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and HR at increasing workloads. Self-paced laboratory 5-km TT versus a GXT has been found to produce greater $\dot{\text{V}}$ O ₂ max and HR. Current research is also directed toward using a supramaximal verification protocol performed after a GXT to confirm attainment of $\dot{\text{V}}$ O ₂ max.

• Maximum aerobic power (MAP) test with lactate: Incremental ramp protocol with increasing load of 25–40 watts (W) at 3- to 4-minute intervals until failure to maintain set cadence. Alternatively, a submaximal test can be performed with termination of the ramp at the end of the step that produces a blood lactate concentration of greater than 4 mmol, and then after a 15-minute period of active rest of cycling at less than 100 W and able to drink ad libitum, a maximal test can be performed starting at 150 W with increases of 30 W per minute until unable to maintain set cadence. Measures $\dot{\text{V}}$ O ₂ , HR, W, and lactate. MAP is defined as the highest power output maintained during the test. Peak power output (PPO) is the highest 30-second power output from the maximal aerobic test. Higher power outputs are achieved during shorter ramp protocols of 1-minute stages of 25-watt increments versus 4-minute stages of 35-watt increments. PPOs of professional cyclists have been recorded to be as high as 525–585 W. When expressed in watts/kilogram body weight, the PPO of a Tour de France champion has been measured to be 7.5 W/kg. The workload at 4 mmol/L has been correlated to cycling performance, with values as high as 6.4 W/kg at 4 mmol/L measured in Tour de France champions. $\dot{\text{V}}$ O ₂ max values of greater than 70 mL/kg/min are found in elite and professional cyclists, with top Tour de France cyclists ranging from 76 to 82 mL/kg/min. Professional cyclists appear to have a decrease in the magnitude of the $\dot{\text{V}}$ O ₂ slow component compared with amateur elites (oxygen uptake slowly rises during prolonged exercise at submaximal intensity, attributed to recruitment of type II fibers because of fatigue of type I fibers).

• Cycling economy (CE): Power output generated in watts at a cost of 1 L of oxygen per minute of exercise (Coyle). For a constant load test of 20 minutes at 80% of $\dot{\text{V}}$ O ₂ max, the economy of world-class cyclists averages 85 W/L/min.

• Gross mechanical efficiency (GE): Ratio of work accomplished to energy expended; GE = 60 × W ÷ 20,934 × $\dot{\text{V}}$ O ₂ (Jeukendrup). For world-class cyclists, the GE is 25%. Both CE and GE are positively related to the percentage distribution of type 1 fibers in the knee extensors. Once a high level of fitness has been obtained, such as in the elite athlete, CE and GE performed at submaximal intensities of 70%–90% of maximum HR are more important determinants of cycling performance than $\dot{\text{V}}$ O ₂ max (Lucia).

• Wingate anaerobic test (WANT): Developed in Israel during the 1970s and measures peak anaerobic power (highest mechanical power generated during any 3- to 5-second interval of the test), anaerobic fatigue (the percentage decline in power compared with PPO), and total anaerobic capacity (total amount of work accomplished over 30 seconds); the athlete pedals on a mechanically braked ergometer for 30 seconds all out against a fixed resistance.