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General Anatomy


Surface Anatomy

Fig. 1.1a and b, Surface anatomy of Female (a) and Male (b); anterior views.

Anatomical Regions

Fig. 1.2a and b, Anatomical regions; anterior (a) and posterior (b) views.

Anatomical Terminology

Fig. 1.3a and b, Anatomical terminology; anterior (a) and lateral (b) views.

Anatomical Planes

Fig. 1.4, Anterior/posterior (A/P) radiograph of the chest; frontal plane .

Fig. 1.5, Lateral radiograph of the elbow; sagittal plane.

Fig. 1.6, Anatomical planes.

Fig. 1.7a and b, Cross-sectional image in the transverse (horizontal) plane of MRI of the brain (a) and CT image of the abdomen (b).

Axes of Movement

Fig. 1.8a to c, Anatomical axes.

Fig. 1.9, Hip flexion and extension.

Fig. 1.10, Shoulder abduction and adduction.

Fig. 1.11, Neck rotation.

Basic Movements of the Upper Extremity

Fig. 1.12a to c, Basic movements of the shoulder.

Fig. 1.13a and b, Movements about the elbow and forearm.

Fig. 1.14a to d, Movements of wrist, hand and fingers.

Structure/Function

APLEY’s Movements

Functional movements such as reaching over your head or behind your back to scratch between your shoulder blades are examples of combined movements of the upper extremity. They require a simultaneous multiaxial motion (often of more than one joint) in order to be effectively performed;

  • A)

    Flexion, abduction and external rotation of the shoulder, along with elbow flexion and supination;

  • B)

    extension, adduction and internal rotation of the should er, along with elbow flexion and pronation.

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Basic Movements of the Lower Extremity

Fig. 1.15a to c, Hip movements.

Fig. 1.16a and b, Movements at the knee joint.

Fig. 1.17a and b, Movements at the ankle.

Structure/Function

Open vs. closed kinetic chain movements

  • 1.

    Open kinetic chain movements are described as movements of the body that occur about a single joint or limb segment (e.g. knee extension in a sitting position) and occur independent of movements at other joints (knee moves independent of ankle and hip joints).

  • 2.

    Closed kinetic chain movements are described as movements of the body that involve the simultaneous motion at more than 1 joint or segment, and creates a ‘linked’ movement pattern (e.g. standing up from a sitting position – in order for the knee to extend, the ankle and hip joints must also move). Closed chain movements are sometimes referred to as ‘functional movements’ because they replicate how the body moves during normal activities of daily living.

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Basic Movements of Head, Neck and Trunk

Fig. 1.18a to c, Neck movements.

Fig. 1.19a to c, Trunk movements.

Fig. 1.20a to c, Additional anatomical movements.

Anatomical Systems

Fig. 1.21, Anatomical systems.

System Basic Structures * Basic Functions *
① Digestive Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus, liver, pancreas, salivary glands, teeth, tongue Digestion and resorption of food
② Cardiorespiratory Heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries), blood, lungs, nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi Blood flow and pressure; circulate nutrients throughout the body; 0 2 /C0 2 gas exchange
③ Nervous Brain, spinal cord, cranial and peripheral nerves, nerve endings and receptors Controls and coordinates all body functions (conscious and unconscious)
④ Reproductive Male: testes, epididymis, accessory sex organs
Female: uterus, ovaries, FALLOPIAN tubes, accessory sex organs		 Male: formation of sperm and semen; Female: formation of germ cells (eggs) and bearing the fetus during development
⑤ Urinary Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra Production and excretion of urine
⑥ Musculoskeletal Skeletal muscles, tendons, bones, joints, ligaments, and cartilage Forms, supports, stabilizes and powers movement of the body; stores minerals/chemicals; aids in red blood cell production
⑦ Integumentary Skin, hair, nails, and exocrine sweat glands Retain body fluids, protection against disease, elimination of waste products, and regulation of body temperature
⑧ Endocrine Endocrine glands: pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas (endocrine part); Male: testes (endocrine part); Female: ovary (endocrine part), liver (endocrine part) Production and secretion of hormones and chemical substances that regulate the activities of cells and organs
⑨ Lymphatic Lymph nodes and lymphatic vessels, central lymphoid tissue, peripheral lymphoid organs, lymphocytes Drainage and protection, immunoprotection
* This is not an exhaustive list of all structures and functions.

Musculoskeletal System

Fig. 1.22a to c, Musculoskeletal system; anterior view.

Fig. 1.23a and b, Conventional radiograph (X-ray); A/P view of the knee (a) and lateral view of the elbow (b).

Types of Bones

Fig. 1.24a to g, Human skeleton (a), types of bones (b–g); anterior view.

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