A primary series of vaccination with diphtheria toxoid affords protective immunity in children and adults. To counter the effect of waning immunity, booster doses should be administered every 10 years to older children and adults who have completed the primary…
The Streptococcus anginosus (milleri) group is a subgroup within the viridans-group streptococci that includes three separate streptococcal species: S. anginosus, S. constellatus, and S. intermedius. These viridans-group streptococci are part of the normal flora of the human oropharynx and urogenital…
Overview The viridans group streptococci (VGS) are a diverse group of organisms and are the predominant microbiota in the oropharynx and gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The viridans streptococci cause a significant percentage of all cases of infective endocarditis (IE). Streptococcus mutans…
Reviewed for currency January 14, 2021 Historical Perspective Group B streptococci (GBS; Streptococcus agalactiae ) were reported as human pathogens in 1938 by Fry, who described three cases of fatal puerperal sepsis. Infections in humans were reported infrequently until the…
Revised January 7, 2021 Historical Background The first time that the term entérocoque was used appears to have been in an article in the French literature in 1899. The article was referring to a diplococcus found in the gastrointestinal (GI)…
Revised July 1, 2020 Long recognized for causing asymptomatic colonization and as a prominent cause of pneumonia, bacteremia, meningitis, sinusitis, and otitis media, Streptococcus pneumoniae is likely the most common cause of serious bacterial respiratory infection in both children and…
Reviewed for currency November 8, 2020 Rheumatic Fever Acute rheumatic fever (ARF) is a disease characterized by nonsuppurative inflammatory lesions involving primarily the heart, joints, subcutaneous tissues, and central nervous system. In its classic form, ARF is acute, febrile, and…
Revised December, 2019 Streptococcus pyogenes (group A Streptococcus; [GAS]) is one of the most important bacterial pathogens of humans. This ubiquitous organism is the most frequent bacterial cause of acute pharyngitis, and it also gives rise to a variety of…
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The genus Staphylococcus, with more than 80 recognized species and subspecies ( ) is one of the most abundant microbes inhabiting normal human skin and mucous membranes. They infrequently cause primary invasive disease and are most commonly encountered by…