OUTLINE Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Symptoms, 191 Implications of Gastrointestinal Symptoms in COVID-19, 191 Mechanism on How SARS-CoV-2 Affects Gut Health, 192 Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme-2 Receptor Mechanism, 192 Impact of SARS-CoV-2 on Gut Microbiota, 193 Impact of Gastric Acid Reduction on COVID-19 Outcomes,…
The Oral Cavity and Viral Infections The oral cavity is home to a vast microbial flora that also include a robust community of viruses. Although the viruses that infect bacteria or bacteriophages constitute the majority, viruses that infect human cells…
OUTLINE Epidemiology of Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19, 159 Historical Background of Neurological Effects of the Coronavirus Family, 160 Pathophysiology, Pathogenesis, and Proposed Mechanisms of the SARS-CoV-2 Virus and the Nervous System, 161 COVID-19 and the Peripheral Nervous System, 162 Anosmia…
OUTLINE Epidemiology of Cardiac Injury From COVID-19, 137 History of Cardiovascular Effects From SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV, 138 Pathophysiology and Potential Mechanisms of Cardiovascular Injury From COVID-19, 138 Renin-Angiotensin System, 138 Direct Infection of the Myocardium, 139 Cytokine-Mediated Cardiac Injury, 140…
OUTLINE COVID-19 Manifestations in the Respiratory System, 100 Clinical Presentation, 100 Complications, 101 Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome, 102 COVID-19 Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome, 111 Lung Microbiome and COVID-19, 114 Specific COVID-19 Pulmonary Complications, 115 COVID-19 Long-Term Pulmonary Complications, 116 Treatment…
OUTLINE Short Comparison of SARS-CoV-2 With SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV, 72 Natural History, 73 Incubation Period, 73 Spectrum of COVID-19, 74 Pathogenicity and Virulence, 74 Asymptomatic Disease and Carrier Status, 75 Asymptomatic Patient Trajectories, 75 Symptomatic Patient Trajectories, 76 Demographics, 76…
The extraordinary global spread of SARS-CoV-2 through naïve populations provides compelling evidence of both the strengths and limitations of the human immune response: on the one hand, recognizing and eliminating a novel viral pathogen, while on the other, causing potentially…
SARS-CoV-2 and Coronaviruses Evolutionary Origins In the last two decades, three coronaviruses have caused outbreaks of varying scales, with the pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) representing the most recent threat to human health at a…
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes a highly contagious disease called CO rona VI rus D isease 2019 (COVID-19). The virus was first reported in Wuhan city, Hubei Province of China in December 2019; in less than 3…