Arthroscopic and endoscopic techniques were first introduced in the early 1920s and have since revolutionized medical treatments, especially in the field of orthopedic surgery. Widespread application of arthroscopic techniques has been demonstrated in the shoulder and knee; however, its utility…
The elbow is a complex joint affected by a variety of pathologic conditions. Advanced imaging of the elbow with computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), MR arthrography, and ultrasound (US) provide powerful tools for diagnosis; however, an understanding of…
Overview of Pathologies The key to diagnosing elbow injuries involves performing a thorough history and physical examination of the elbow. Additionally, to rule out referred pain, the surrounding areas such as the cervical spine, shoulder, wrist, and hand should also…
Elbow anatomy is complex, but knowledge of its intricate structural makeup is crucial to understanding athletic injuries in this area. Those who provide care for athletes, particularly athletes who participate in overhead-throwing sports, must have the ability to accurately diagnose…
Injuries to the acromioclavicular (AC) joint are common occurrences in the athletic patient population, with approximately 9% of all shoulder injuries involving the AC joint. Injuries to the sternoclavicular (SC) joint are less common, accounting for up to 3% of…
Vascular problems involving the shoulder are relatively uncommon, but they can result in pain, a profound deleterious effect on an athlete's performance, and, in rare cases, a potentially limb-threatening situation. Acute sports-related vascular injuries are most common in contact sports…
Nerve Entrapment in the Shoulder The incidence of entrapment neuropathies involving the shoulder is largely unknown, but as our understanding of the anatomy and pathology of these conditions grows, earlier and more accurate recognition of these conditions has led to…
The scapula connects the upper extremity to the thorax and allows for complex movements about the shoulder. Although there are minimal bony connections to the axial skeleton, the scapula plays an integral role in the function of the upper extremity…
Arthritis or degenerative joint disease (DJD) of the shoulder in young athletes is a disabling condition that often limits sports participation and is extremely challenging to treat. Shoulder arthritis, defined as a degeneration of the articular cartilage of either the…
The structural anatomy of the glenohumeral articulation affords considerable range of motion (ROM) to the shoulder. The osseous and soft tissue structures provide limited yet sufficient static and dynamic restraints to allow significant motion not only for activities of daily…