Introduction Although the term involves controversy, failed back surgery syndrome (FBSS) is defined as lumbar pain with or without radicular symptom that persists or appears after one or several surgical interventions. FBSS is not necessarily the consequence of a failed…
Introduction Myelopathy denotes any neurological deficit related to a pathology of the spinal cord. A spinal cord injury (SCI) can be produced by diverse etiologies such as trauma, ischemia, neoplasms, inflammatory processes, and infection. However, degenerative cervical myelopathy (DCM) is…
Introduction Transforaminal lumbar interbody interbody fusion (TLIF) and posterior lumbar interbody fusion (PLIF) have become common procedures for the treatment of degenerative lumbar disease such as spondylolisthesis, scoliosis, and spondylosis leading to foraminal stenosis. Interbody cage placement is often used…
Introduction Atlanto-axial (C1-C2) facet joint arthropathy is an underdiagnosed condition closely associated with the development of refractory occipital pain. Prevalence increases with age, ranging from 5% in the sixth decade to 18% in the ninth decade of life. Moreover, the…
Introduction Thoracic stenosis can lead to compression of the spinal cord as a result of spinal degeneration, hypertrophy of the facet and ligamentum flavum, ossification of the ligamentum flavum, and diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, among others. These changes may be…
Introduction Radiculopathy is one of the most common symptoms derived from degenerative changes in the cervical spine. Radiculopathy is a disorder of the nerve roots and usually manifests as axial pain (neck/low back) radiating to the distribution of the affected…
Introduction Low back pain is one of the leading causes of emergency visits in the United States, leading to billions of dollars in loss of productivity each year. Most Americans will experience back pain during their lifetime, and a majority…
Introduction Although first described in 1952 by Brian et al., cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM) continues to be a frequently misdiagnosed pathology. The insidious onset is often mistaken as part of the normal aging process, while patients often have progressive and…
Introduction Stenosis of the lumbar spine can occur at different areas of the lumbar spine. Stenosis of the lumbar spine is most common at L4-5 level but can also occur at L3-4, L2-3, L5-S1, and L1-2 in decreasing frequency. Stenosis…
Introduction C1-C2 pannus most commonly results from both chronic instability of the atlanto-axial segment and an inflammatory process of the atlanto-axial joint (AAJ). These degenerative processes are typically associated with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and cause ligamentous structural destruction. RA affects…