Transition to Adulthood

Introduction

The developmental stage that spans the years of 16 to 21 has been termed emerging adulthood ( ). This transition to adulthood, however, especially in the current era, can last well into the late 20 s. The era is marked by exploration, adaptation, increased cognitive control, planning, and decision making. Routes through the transition are highly individual. Pathways of transition to adulthood are characterized by the nature of relationships, especially romantic relationships, including marriage and parenthood; the duration of education; the nature of employment and resulting financial status; and other social engagements. The formation of the young adult is largely influenced by early periods of development; however, social relationships, including family and peer interactions, play a critical role in how young adults develop. Ecological theories also highlight the importance of neighborhood, community, and society for impacting health and development (see Chapter 2 ).

This chapter focuses on multiple aspects of emerging adulthood. Developmental processes include neurologic, cognitive, and social changes. We describe psychosocial development in terms of several categories of participation from the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health ( https://www.who.int/standards/classifications/international-classification-of-functioning-disability-and-health ): interpersonal or social relationships; major life areas of education and work with their impacts on finances and homeownership; and community, social, and civic life, including religion and political life. Finally, we consider health needs and transition into the adult health care system for physical and mental health.

The Developmental Process

Developmental psychological theories vary in their conceptualization of adulthood (see Chapter 3 ). Psychoanalytic or psychosexual theories, such as Freudian theory, suggest that development occurs through a series of psychosexual stages, ending in the genital stage. The primary developmental task of adulthood is forming a healthy sexual relationship, which is dependent upon the unconscious mind and experiences in childhood. Psychosocial developmental theories, such as Eriksonian stage theory, suggest that success in adulthood is measured to the extent to which intimacy is achieved in comparison to isolation. According to this theory, a strong sense of self must be developed before a successful intimate relationship can be established. If a positive self-concept is not developed, then young adults may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation. Learning theories (see Chapter 4 ) posit that the environment shapes development to adulthood through conditioning (classical and operant) and social learning. Cognitive developmental theory focuses on the development of mental processes that culminate in abstract logical thinking and are facilitated through biologic changes.

The transition to the adult state in our modern era, regardless of theory, is more complicated and prolonged than ever before. The nuanced approach to studying adulthood is to investigate this transitional phase, known as late adolescence and emerging adulthood, as separate from adulthood. According to Arnett’s theory, emerging adulthood consists of identity exploration, changes in romantic partners, and educational and occupational selection. It is defined as a self-focused stage in which there are many opportunities to explore both in terms of education/occupation and in relationships. This exploration can cause the individual stress and anxiety. This new stage in development, the emerging adulthood phase, is associated with delayed entry into the workforce, which often leads to large financial and emotional burden on middle-aged parents ( ).

During this developmental stage in Western cultures, independence is the primary psychosocial task. Family, school, and the job market determine the pathways by which adolescents develop into young adults. The importance of independence varies as a function of cultural and socioeconomic variables. Importantly, social disadvantage and exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) can negatively affect this transition. Higher levels of wellbeing, satisfaction in life, and self-acceptance are associated with higher levels of autonomy and a more coherent self-structure. Independence for young adults is based on their ability to analyze and adapt to a variety of settings and situations. Research suggests that those who marry, cohabitate, or attend college are more likely to make healthful choices than those who enter the workforce or are single parents ( ). Those who are socially disadvantaged, as defined as lack of family support, academic failure, and difficulty holding down a job, display the lowest level of wellbeing (Melendo et al., 2020). Low levels of wellbeing are associated with increased substance use, engagement in risky sexual behavior, and being the victim of gun violence as well as attempted and completed suicide ( ). With the opportunity for increased independence comes the challenge of engaging in healthy decision making.

Psychosocial Development