Introduction Neurosurgical interventions for the treatment of psychiatric illnesses have been used since the dawn of the somatic treatments in neuropsychiatry ( ). The use of surgery in psychiatry existed before there were effective pharmacological strategies, such as antidepressants or…
History Interest in the effects of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) on the central nervous system began in the early 20th century, with Bailey and Bremer demonstrating in 1938 that electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve of cats resulted in increased…
Introduction Magnetic seizure therapy (MST), as the name implies, is a treatment that involves the induction of therapeutic seizures generated through magnetic fields. The impetus for developing this treatment was the goal of achieving comparable therapeutic effects to ECT, while…
Introduction Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is the oldest biologic treatment in psychiatry still in use and continues to play a crucial role in the management of treatment-resistant depression (TRD). ECT has been shown to be significantly more effective than pharmacotherapy in…
Introduction Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) technique, whereby a subthreshold, continuous electrical current (typically 1–2 mA) is applied to the brain via two or more electrodes, placed over the scalp ( ). The conventional tDCS device…
Introduction Although diverse treatments are currently available for depression, one class of treatments that holds significant promise, especially for treatment-resistant depression (TRD) in the near future, is neuromodulation. This growing category of treatment techniques includes interventions, either electrical, chemical, or…
Introduction Almost 70% of depressed individuals do not adequately respond to common antidepressants and need multiple therapeutic trials in order to achieve a full remission. Furthermore, according to the STAR*D study, patients who need more trials had the greatest risk…
Introduction Increasing data indicate that the immune system in general and inflammation in particular may play a role in the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders including depression and anxiety ( ). These data include evidence of low-grade inflammation in subgroups of…
Acknowledgments Effort for authors was provided by The Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research which is funded by the Steven and Alexandra Cohen Foundation, Tim Ferriss, Matt Mullenweg, Craig Nerenberg, and Blake Mycoskie, and by NIH grant T32DA07209. Introduction Classic…
Introduction In recent years, ketamine, its individual enantiomers, and related compounds have been a major focus of research and clinical development for the treatment of depression. With the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) approval of esketamine for the…