Respiratory Acidosis Respiratory acidosis, or primary hypercapnia, is the acid-base disturbance initiated by an increase in the carbon dioxide tension of body fluids and in whole-body CO 2 stores. Hypercapnia acidifies body fluids and elicits an adaptive increment in the…
Pathogenesis The pathogenesis of metabolic alkalosis requires two processes: (1) generation and (2) maintenance. Generation occurs by net gain of bicarbonate ions (HCO3 − ) or net loss of nonvolatile acid (usually HCl by vomiting) from the extracellular fluid. Although…
Metabolic acidosis describes a process in which nonvolatile acids accumulate in the body. For practical purposes, this can result from either the addition of protons or the loss of base. The consequence of this process is a decline in the…
Acid-base disorders can have major clinical and diagnostic implications. If they generate extreme acidemia or alkalemia, the abnormal pH itself may result in pathophysiologic consequences. For example, the tertiary structure of proteins is altered by extreme pH conditions, potentially affecting…
Disorders of mineral metabolism (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium) are common, especially in hospitalized patients. The extracellular concentrations of these ions are less than 1% of total body stores, and the principal site of storage is bone. Thus, serum levels may not…
Introduction Dyskalemias (i.e., hypo- and hyperkalemia) are common abnormalities that occur frequently in patients with chronic kidney disease and are associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Due to their acute effects on cardiac arrhythmias, severe hypo- and hyperkalemia are medical…
Edema represents expansion of the interstitial volume and is a common phenotypic presentation of multiple pathologic processes. The word diuretic is derived from the Greek roots dia “thoroughly” and ourein “urine.” Consequently, the term diuretic is defined by its ability…
## The serum sodium concentration ([Na + ]) is the ratio of sodium to water in the extracellular fluid (ECF) compartment. It is determined by the relationship among total body sodium, potassium, and water, the last of which typically is…
## The incidence of hyponatremia depends on the population screened and the criteria used to define the disorder. Hospital incidences of 15% to 22% are common if hyponatremia is defined as any serum sodium concentration ([Na + ]) of less…
Introduction Visualizing the genitourinary system was one of the first goals of the nascent radiological sciences at the turn of the 20th century. It was a fortuitous discovery that the sodium iodide patients were taking for syphilis made their bladder…