Anatomy and physiology The kidneys lie posteriorly in the abdomen, retroperitoneally on either side of the spine at the T12–L3 level, and are 11–14 cm long ( Fig. 12.1 ). The right kidney lies 1.5 cm lower than the left because of the…
Breast Anatomy and physiology The adult breast lies over the pectoralis major and serratus anterior muscles; it extends from the lateral border of the sternum into the lower axilla as the tail of Spence. The centre of the breast is…
Endocrine glands synthesise hormones that are released into the circulation and act at distant sites. Diseases may result from excessive or inadequate hormone production, target organ hypersensitivity or resistance to the hormone. The main endocrine glands are the pituitary, thyroid,…
Ear Anatomy and physiology The ear is the specialised sensory organ of hearing and balance; it is divided anatomically into the external, middle and inner ear. External ear The external ear consists of the cartilaginous pinna, the external auditory canal (cartilage…
Anatomy and physiology The eye lies in the bony orbit of the skull and is covered by the eyelid, which protects it from foreign bodies and keeps the anterior surface moist by maintaining the tear film. The upper lid is…
Anatomy and physiology The nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system, CNS) and the peripheral nerves (peripheral nervous system, PNS). The PNS includes the autonomic nervous system, which is responsible for controlling involuntary functions. The…
Anatomy and physiology The gastrointestinal system comprises the alimentary tract, liver, biliary system, pancreas and spleen. The alimentary tract extends from the mouth to the anus and includes the oesophagus, stomach, small intestine or small bowel (comprising the duodenum, jejunum…
Anatomy and physiology Understanding the surface anatomy of the lungs ( Fig. 5.1 ) and their relation to adjacent structures is essential for the practice of respiratory medicine. At the end of tidal expiration, the dome of the diaphragm extends high…
Heart Anatomy and physiology The heart comprises two muscular pumps working in a series, covered in a serous sac (pericardium) that allows free movement with each heart beat and respiration ( Fig. 4.1 ). The right heart (right atrium and ventricle)…
General principles of physical examination The process of taking a history and conducting a physical examination is artificially separated in classical medical teaching, to encourage learners to develop a structured approach to information gathering. However, your physical assessment of patients…