Definition and Epidemiology Gender identity is the internal sense of one’s own sex, whether male, female, neither, both, or something else. Transgender is a broad term to reference individuals with gender identity that differs from sex recorded at birth, typically…
Definition Individuals with differences of sexual development lack concordance of various aspects of gender. These aspects include chromosomal sex (46,XX, 46,XY, or other), gonadal or reproductive sex (ovaries, fallopian tubes, and uterus vs. testes, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and ejaculatory…
Definition Neuroendocrine neoplasms, , formerly called neuroendocrine tumors, are now subclassified as well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors and poorly differentiated neuroendocrine carcinomas. This new division has important implication for both prognosis and treatment. Neuroendocrine neoplasms occur in almost all tissues but have…
Definition Polyglandular syndromes are disorders of dysfunction and pathology of more than one endocrine gland. These disorders can be classified into neoplastic syndromes with abnormal endocrine cell proliferation and often, but not invariably, hormone hypersecretion, and autoimmune syndromes , in…
Definition Hypoglycemia is a common biochemical abnormality observed in clinical practice. Hypoglycemic disorders are more frequent in neonates, infants, and children than adults. Delay in diagnosis and inappropriately treated hypoglycemia can have severe consequences, including seizures, permanent brain injury, or…
Overview Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by raised glucose concentrations and associated alterations in the metabolism of fat, protein, and carbohydrates. Chronically elevated blood glucose levels increase the risk of developing macrovascular and microvascular complications. Diabetes comprises…
Adrenal Medulla and Catecholamines The adrenal medulla occupies the central portion of the adrenal gland. Adrenomedullary cells are called chromaffin cells because they stain brown with chromium salts. Chromaffin cells differentiate in the center of the adrenal gland in response…
Normal Anatomy and Function The adrenal glands weigh 6 to 8 g in adults ( Fig. 208-1 ). Each contains a cortex, which makes steroid hormones, and a medulla, which produces catecholamines. Diseases of the adrenal medulla are discussed in Chapter…
Overview of Thyroid Disease The thyroid gland synthesizes both T 4 and T 3 , which are essential for normal human growth and development and for normal physiologic function during adult life. Thyroid hormone levels are genetically set in each…
Anatomy and Hormone Synthesis Vasopressin and oxytocin, which are hormones of the posterior pituitary, are synthesized in specialized neurons of the hypothalmus. These neurons, notable for their large size, are termed magnocellular neurons . In the hypothalamus, the magnocellular neurons…