Introduction Pseudoarthrosis is a common complication following fusion operations. It can be found in both instrumented and noninstrumented fusions but more commonly occurs following noninstrumented fusion. Pseudoarthrosis is defined as symptomatic nonunion after 1 year of a fusion surgery. The…
Introduction The cervical spine is composed of seven vertebrae. With the exception of the first cervical vertebrae, each vertebra has an associated nerve that exits the foramen above the named vertebrae. Additionally, the vertebral artery enters the foramen transversarium typically…
Introduction Cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM) is the most common type of spinal cord dysfunction in adults. This chronic spinal degeneration is characterized by intervertebral disc herniations, abnormal ligament and joint hypertrophy, and ossification. It almost invariably results in progressive neurological…
Introduction Thoracic disc herniations (TDHs) are commonly found on imaging and occur in up to 37% of asymptomatic individuals. A large proportion of TDHs are giant (occupying >40% of the spinal canal) and calcified with tendencies to adhere and erode…
Introduction Ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament (OPLL) is one of many conditions classified as enthesopathies, which result from progressive inflammation of the tendons and ligaments of the spine followed by degeneration and calcification. Other examples of enthesopathies include ossification…
Introduction Lumbar spinal stenosis is one of the most common diagnoses in the United States and worldwide that predominantly affects the aging population, with reported prevalence estimates up to 47%. Advanced disease results in back pain and neurological compression. Lumbar…
Introduction Back pain is prevalent in the United States and worldwide. Lumbar arthrodesis techniques are being increasingly used to address congenital, degenerative, and traumatic spinal pathologies. Adjacent segment degeneration continues to be a very common sequela of lumbar arthrodesis occurring…
Introduction Anterior cervical decompressions and fusions (ACDFs) are one of the most common spine surgeries worldwide and the gold standard treatment for symptomatic cervical spondylosis. Adjacent segment disease is a very common sequela and occurs in about 26% of all…
Introduction The intervertebral disc allows axial loading that results from an upright posture of the spine. The disc is composed of two components, the outer fibrous annulus fibrosus and the central nucleus pulposus, and originates from the notochord. The nucleus…
Introduction Low back pain is prevalent in the United States and the world, and spondylolisthesis is one of the most common causes of back pain with an estimated prevalence of 11.5%. Spondylolisthesis refers to the anterior, posterior, or rotational translation…