Development of Limbs


Early Stages of Limb Development

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The upper limb buds are visible by day 24, and the lower limb buds appear 1 or 2 days later, with the activation of a group of mesenchymal cells in the somatic lateral mesoderm ( Fig. 16.1 A ). Homeobox (Hox) genes regulate patterning in the formation of the limbs. The limb buds form deep to a thick band of ectoderm, the apical ectodermal ridge ( AER ; Fig. 16.2 A ). The buds first appear as small bulges on the ventrolateral body wall (see Fig. 16.1 ). Each limb bud consists of a mesenchymal core of mesoderm covered by a layer of ectoderm.

Fig. 16.1, Drawings of human embryos show development of the limbs. A , Lateral view of an embryo at approximately 28 days. The upper limb bud appears as a swelling or bulge on the ventrolateral body wall. The lower limb bud is much smaller than the upper limb bud. B , Lateral view of an embryo at approximately 32 days. The upper limb buds are paddle-shaped, and the lower limb buds are flipper-like.

Fig. 16.2, A , Oblique section of an embryo at approximately 28 days. Observe the paddle-like upper limb bud lateral to the embryonic heart and the apical epidermal ridge (AER) . B , Signaling pathways regulate the elongation and segmentation of the digit ray. In the AER, fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling (red) maintains a small population of subridge undifferentiated mesenchymal cells, which are actively incorporated into the digital condensation (blue) . At the presumptive joint site, the newly differentiated chondrogenic cells dedifferentiate to interzone status under the regulation of multiple signaling pathways. WNTs promote chondrocyte dedifferentiation through canonical WNT signaling. Indian hedgehog (IHH) signals to the interzone region through localized expression of the transcription factors Gli2 and Gli3. Transforming growth factors signal to the interzone cells through the type II receptor. Growth differentiation factor 5 (Gdf5) regulates the progression of the joint and skeletogenesis of the digit elements. BMP, Bone morphogenetic protein; TGFβR, transforming growth factor-β receptor.

The limb buds elongate by proliferation of the mesenchyme. The upper limb buds appear disproportionately low on the embryo's trunk because of the early development of the cranial half of the embryo (see Fig. 16.1 ). The earliest stages of limb development are alike for the upper and lower limbs (see Figs. 16.1 B and 16.4 ). Later, distinct features arise because of differences in the form and function of the hands and feet.

The upper limb buds develop opposite the caudal cervical segments, and the lower limb buds form opposite the lumbar and upper sacral segments. At the apex of each limb bud, the ectoderm thickens to form the AER. This ridge is a specialized, multilayered epithelial structure (see Fig. 16.2 ) that is induced by the paracrine factor, fibroblast growth factor 10 (FGF10), from the underlying mesenchyme. Transcription factors encoded by the gene BHLHA9 (Basic Helix-Loop-Helix Family Member A9) and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling is required for its formation. From recent studies, transcription factors of the T-box family of genes have been assigned a critical role in limb development .

FGF8, secreted by the AER, exerts an inductive influence on the limb mesenchyme that initiates growth and development of the limbs in a proximodistal axis. Retinoic acid promotes the formation of the limb bud by inhibiting FGF signaling. Mesenchymal cells aggregate at the posterior margin of the limb bud to form the zone of polarizing activity , an important signaling center in limb development. FGFs from the AER activate the zone of polarizing activity, which causes expression of the Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) genes.

Transcription factors encoded by the genes BHLHA9 and SHH regulate the normal patterning of the limbs along the anterior-posterior axis. Expression of WNT7A from the dorsal non-AER ectoderm of the limb bud and engrailed homeobox 1 (EN1) from the ventral aspect are involved in specifying the dorsal-ventral axis. The AER itself is maintained by inductive signals from SHH and WNT7 . It has been suggested that epiprofin, a zinc finger transcription factor, regulates WNT signaling in the limb bud (see Fig. 16.2B ).

The mesenchyme adjacent to the AER consists of undifferentiated, rapidly proliferating cells, whereas mesenchymal cells proximal to it differentiate into blood vessels and cartilage bone models. The distal ends of the limb buds flatten into hand plates and foot plates ( Fig. 16.3 and Fig. 16.4 B and H ). Studies have shown that endogenous retinoic acid is also involved in limb development and pattern formation.

Fig. 16.3, Illustrations of development of the limbs (32 to 56 days). The upper limbs develop earlier than the lower limbs.

Fig. 16.4, Illustrations of limb development between the fourth and eighth weeks—hands on days 27 (A) , 32 (B) , 41 (C) , 46 (D) , 50 (E) , and 52 (F); feet on days 28 (G) , 36 (H) , 46 (I) , 49 (J) , 52 (K) , and 56 (L) . The early stages are alike except that development of the hands precedes that of the feet by a day or two. The arrows in D and J indicate the tissue breakdown process (apoptosis) that separates the fingers and toes.

By the end of the sixth week, mesenchymal tissue in the hand plates has condensed to form digital rays (see Figs. 16.3 and 16.4 C ). These mesenchymal condensations outline the pattern of the digits (fingers) in the hand plates. During the seventh week, similar condensations of mesenchyme condense to form digital rays and digits (toes) in the footplates (see Fig. 16.4 I ).

At the tip of each digital ray, a part of the AER induces development of the mesenchyme into the mesenchymal primordia of the bones (phalanges) in the digits (see Fig. 16.6 C and D ). The intervals between the digital rays are occupied by loose mesenchyme. These intervening regions of mesenchyme soon break down, forming notches between the digital rays ( Fig. 16.5 , and see Fig. 16.3 and Fig. 16.4 D and F ). As the tissue breakdown progresses, separate digits (fingers and toes) are formed by the end of the eighth week ( Fig. 16.6 , and see Fig. 16.4 E , F , K , and L ).

Fig. 16.5, Scanning electron micrographs show dorsal (A) and plantar (B) views of the right foot of an embryo at approximately 48 days. The toe buds ( arrowheads in A ) and the heel cushion and metatarsal tactile elevation ( asterisks in B ) have just appeared. Dorsal (C) and distal (D) views of the right foot of embryos at approximately 55 days show that the tips of the toes are separated and interdigital degeneration has begun. Notice the dorsiflexion of the metatarsus and toes (C) as well as the thickened heel cushion (D) .

Fig. 16.6, Scanning electron micrographs show a dorsal view of the left foot (A) and a plantar view of the right foot (B) of an 8-week embryo. Although the foot is supinated, dorsiflexion is distinct. C and D , Paraffin sections of the tarsus and metatarsus of a young fetus, stained with hematoxylin and eosin, show metatarsal cartilages (1–5) , cubital cartilage (6) , and calcaneus (7) . The separation between the interosseous muscles (IM) and the short flexor muscles of the big toe (SFH) is clearly seen. The plantar crossing (Cr) of the tendons of the long flexors of the digits and the hallux (great toe) is shown in D.

Molecular studies indicate that the earliest stages of limb patterning and digit formation involve the expression of the patched 1 gene (PTCH1) , which is essential for the downstream regulation of multiple Hox genes and the SHH pathway. Gradual apoptosis (programmed cell death) through both the apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) and caspase-3 mediated pathways is responsible for the tissue breakdown in the interdigital regions. Antagonism between retinoic acid signaling and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) appears to control the interdigital apoptosis and digit formation. Blockade of these cellular and molecular events could account for syndactyly or webbing of the fingers or toes (see Fig. 16.14 C and D ).

Final Stages of Limb Development

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As the limbs elongate, mesenchymal models of the bones are formed by cellular aggregations (see Fig. 16.7 B ). Chondrification centers appear in the fifth week. By the end of the sixth week, the entire limb skeleton is cartilaginous ( Fig. 16.7 ; see Chapter 14 , Fig. 14.13 D and E ). Osteogenesis of long bones begins in the seventh week from primary ossification centers in the middle of the cartilaginous models of the long bones. Ossification centers are present in all long bones by the 12th week (see Chapter 14 , Fig. 14.14 A ).

Fig. 16.7, Schematic longitudinal sections of the upper limb of a human embryo show the development of cartilaginous bones at 28 (A) , 44 (B) , 48 (C) , and 56 (D) days.

From the dermomyotome regions of the somites, myogenic precursor cells migrate into the limb buds and later differentiate into myoblasts. The c-Met receptor tyrosine kinase (encoded by the gene MET ) plays an essential role in regulating this process. As the long bones form, the myoblasts aggregate and form a large muscle mass in each limb bud (see Chapter 15 , Fig. 15.1 ). In general, this muscle mass separates into dorsal (extensor) and ventral (flexor) components. The mesenchyme in the limb bud also gives rise to ligaments and blood vessels.

Early in the seventh week, the limbs extend ventrally. Originally, the flexor aspect of the limbs is ventral, and the extensor aspect is dorsal; the preaxial and postaxial borders are cranial and caudal, respectively (see Fig. 16.10 A and D ). The developing upper and lower limbs rotate in opposite directions and to different degrees ( Figs. 16.8 and 16.9 ):

  • The upper limbs rotate laterally through 90 degrees on their longitudinal axis; as a result, the future elbows come to point dorsally, and the extensor muscles lie on the lateral and posterior aspects of the limb.

  • The lower limbs rotate medially through almost 90 degrees; therefore, the future knees come to face ventrally, and the extensor muscles lie on the anterior aspect of the limb.

Fig. 16.8, Lateral views of embryos. A , Lateral view of an embryo at approximately 28 days. The upper limb bud is much larger than the lower limb bud. B , Lateral view of an embryo at approximately 32 days. The upper and lower limb buds are paddle shaped.

Fig. 16.9, Illustrations of positional changes of the developing limbs of embryos. A , At approximately 48 days, the limbs extend ventrally, and the hand plates and foot plates face each other. B , At approximately 51 days, the upper limbs are bent at the elbow, and the hands are curved over the thorax. C , At approximately 54 days, the soles of the feet face medially. D , At approximately 56 days (end of embryonic stage), the elbows point caudally and the knees cranially.

Developmentally, the radius and tibia are homologous bones, as are the ulna and fibula; likewise, the thumb and great toe are homologous digits. Synovial joints appear at the beginning of the fetal period (ninth week), coinciding with functional differentiation of the limb muscles and their innervation.

Cutaneous Innervation of Limbs

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There is a strong relationship between the growth and rotation of the limbs and their cutaneous segmental nerve supply. Motor axons arising from the spinal cord enter the limb buds during the fifth week and grow into the dorsal and ventral muscle masses. Sensory axons enter the limb buds after the motor axons and use them for guidance. Neural crest cells, the precursors of Schwann cells, surround the motor and sensory nerve fibers in the limbs and form the neurolemma (sheath of Schwann) and myelin sheaths (see Chapter 17 , Fig. 17.11 ).

During the fifth week, peripheral nerves grow from the developing brachial and lumbosacral limb plexuses into the mesenchyme of the limbs ( Fig. 16.10 B and E ). The spinal nerves are distributed in segmental bands, supplying both dorsal and ventral surfaces of the limbs. A dermatome is the area of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve and its spinal ganglion; however, cutaneous nerve areas and dermatomes show considerable overlap.

Fig. 16.10, Illustrations of development of the dermatomal patterns of the limbs. The axial lines indicate areas in which there is no sensory overlap. A and D , Ventral aspect of the limb buds early in the fifth week. At this stage, the dermatomal patterns show the primordial segmental arrangement. B and E , Similar views later in the fifth week show the modified arrangement of dermatomes. C and F , The dermatomal patterns in the adult upper and lower limbs. The primordial dermatomal pattern has disappeared, but an orderly sequence of dermatomes can still be recognized. Notice in F that most of the original ventral surface of the lower limb lies on the back of the adult limb. This arrangement results from the medial rotation of the lower limb that occurs toward the end of the embryonic period. In the upper limb (C) , the ventral axial line extends along the anterior surface of the arm and forearm. In the lower limb (F) , the ventral axial line extends along the medial side of the thigh and knee and down the posteromedial aspect of the leg to the heel.

As the limbs elongate, the cutaneous distribution of the spinal nerves migrates along the limbs and no longer reaches the surface in the distal parts of the limbs. Although the original dermatomal pattern changes during growth of the limbs, an orderly sequence of distribution can still be recognized in the adult (see Fig. 16.10 C and F ). In the upper limb, the areas supplied by spinal nerves C5 and C6 adjoin the areas supplied by T2, T1, and C8, but the overlap between them is minimal at the ventral axial line.

A cutaneous nerve area is the area of skin supplied by a peripheral nerve. If the dorsal root supplying the area is cut, the dermatomal patterns indicate that there may be a slight deficit in the area indicated. However, because there is overlapping of dermatomes, a particular area of skin is not exclusively innervated by a single segmental nerve. The limb dermatomes may be traced progressively down the lateral aspect of the upper limb and back up its medial aspect. A comparable distribution of dermatomes occurs in the lower limbs, which may be traced down the ventral aspect and then up the dorsal aspect. As the limbs descend, they carry their nerves with them; this explains the oblique courses of the nerves arising from the brachial and lumbosacral plexuses.

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