Compulsive Buying

Introduction

Kraepelin and Bleuler first identified oniomania, or the urge to buy, in the early 1900s. Today, compulsive buying is likely a much different phenomenon from what it was when Kraepelin and Bleuler first conceptualized the disorder. In the United States, and likely in all industrialized nations, consumer spending takes place in both public places such as shopping centers, discount stores, or rummage sales and in private homes through the use of online shopping and television shopping networks. The set of symptoms known as compulsive buying, pathological buying, or buying disorder has recently received increased attention in both the consumer and mental health literatures, although data on the topic remain limited.

Diagnosis and Classification

Characteristics of compulsive buying include disinhibition or limited control over buying behavior. Compulsive buying is not included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR); however, McElroy and colleagues have outlined criteria that are consistent with the DSM-IV-TR format, and these have been widely adopted in defining and studying compulsive buying ( Table 35.1 ).

Some have suggested that compulsive buying fits into the grouping of addictive and impulsive behaviors. An individual with compulsive buying behavior may experience a cycle of urges and impulses, followed by pleasure or euphoria while shopping, and guilt after purchasing items, along with a drive to continue the behavior. Impulse control disorders involve impulses or drives that the individual cannot resist, and these urges are harmful to oneself or another person.

According to its current classification, compulsive buying is a “disorder of impulsive control-not otherwise specified” due, in part, to the limited research on this topic. Some researchers have hypothesized that compulsive buying falls onto a spectrum, since the urge to buy may be variable in some individuals, or increasing and decreasing in certain situations, and the onset of compulsive buying behavior may be gradual.

However, research has yet to determine whether compulsive buying fits better with obsessive-compulsive, addictive, or impulse control disorders. Black conceptualized compulsive buying as obsessive thoughts followed by the compulsion to buy, and Frost and colleagues found that compulsive buyers had higher scores on an obsessive-compulsive symptomatology scale when compared with controls. Christenson and colleagues also suggested that compulsive buying might have features of both impulsive and compulsive disorders. Further research needs to delineate the relationship of compulsive buying to each of these theories.

Common factors among compulsive buying behavior are the desire, relief, and feeling of well-being that come from purchasing. Compulsive buyers may believe that their material possessions, not necessarily their personal characteristics, determine their identity. By purchasing, such individuals may feel that they are presenting a more desirable self to the world while hiding their shame over their debt and ongoing purchases. In addition, some research has suggested that a better conceptualization of compulsive buying may include compulsive acquisition, meaning that some individuals who exhibit compulsive buying behavior may feel the need to pick up or gather free items such as brochures or fliers.

Individuals who exhibit compulsive buying behavior often appear to be upset over their own lying, such as hiding new packages from a spouse. For many compulsive buyers, the act of purchasing, rather than what they buy, is what leads to gratification. Many who suffer from compulsive buying do not use the items that they purchase. Some individuals may return or sell the item, although many keep the items. This collection of items can lead to clutter or result in hoarding behavior. Some individuals with compulsive buying disorder spend their money on themselves, while others buy gifts. Some have reported that their urge to shop has led them to seek out and rummage trash cans and dumpsters.

Prevalence Rates and Subject Characteristics

The available data on prevalence rates of compulsive buying have proved to be variable. Koran and colleagues, after conducting phone surveys, found a point prevalence of 5.8% in the United States, with female prevalence rates somewhat higher than males, at 6.0% and 5.5%, respectively. These numbers decreased to a 1.4% point prevalence when the Compulsive Buying Scale cut-off score was increased. Other studies have reported rates of compulsive buying of 1.9% among university students (n = 791) and 9.3% in psychiatric inpatients (n = 204).

The age at onset for compulsive buying appears to typically be during late adolescence or early adulthood, although it may take several years to reach peak intensity. Compulsive buying respondents tend to have incomes below $50,000, to be more likely to make minimum payments on credit cards, and to be within $500 of maximum credit limits. Individuals with compulsive buying behavior also usually spend over $100 during compulsive buying episodes. Christenson and colleagues found that most individuals who exhibited compulsive buying behavior were experiencing indebtedness and that an average of almost half of the household’s income went toward attempts to resolve debt caused by compulsive buying behavior. Differences in shopping tendencies between genders, among individuals of varying incomes, and during special events (e.g., holidays, birthdays, or anniversaries) are important considerations in studying compulsive buying behavior.

One additional key feature of compulsive buying is the use of credit cards. O’Guinn and Faber found that individuals who exhibited compulsive buying behavior, on average, tended to have more credit cards than general consumers and that more compulsive buyers’ credit cards were within $100 of their limit. Access to credit cards is abundant in the United States, and cognitions associated with the use of credit cards (e.g., “I’m not paying for this right now,” “I can afford this next month,” or “I can pay off this credit card with another card”) can often lead to the cycle of overspending. In addition, the desire for and value placed on the need to attain and have the most items possible are likely key aspects for many compulsive buyers. Others diagnosed with compulsive buying disorder may feel driven to purchase items because they have a collection of specific items. Still others feel the allure of the sense of saving when they see a sales rack, even when they spend money on an item that they do not need.