Reducing Major Adverse Cardiac Events and All-Cause Mortality in Noncardiac Surgery: Perioperative Strategies


Key Points

  • 1.

    Major adverse cardiac events (MACEs) are relatively common in patients undergoing noncardiac surgical procedures. The incidence of perioperative myocardial infarction (PMI) is about 0.9%. However, a larger percentage of patients experiences a perioperative increase in cardiac troponins without other criteria for myocardial infarction (myocardial injury after noncardiac surgery [MINS]).

  • 2.

    Preventive and therapeutic strategies for acute coronary syndromes are well established in the nonsurgical setting, but clear evidence about the impact of such strategies on both the incidence and outcomes of perioperative myocardial injury or PMI is lacking. Many therapeutic interventions that have cardioprotective properties may be difficult to apply, or even harmful, in the perioperative period.

  • 3.

    Factors associated with an increased risk of MACE are patient specific (advanced age, high American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) class, kidney disease, anemia) and surgery specific (type of procedure, urgency, complexity, intraoperative complications). Several scoring systems allow clinicians to predict, both preoperatively (e.g., Revised Cardiac Risk Index, National Surgical Quality Improvement Program) and intraoperatively (e.g., ANESCARDIOCAT), the risk of cardiac adverse events and to identify patients who need preventive measures and strict intraoperative and postoperative monitoring.

  • 4.

    Risk stratification is pivotal in patients with PMI or MINS because therapeutic options also depend on a careful balance between the risk of mortality associated with the cardiac complications and the risks (primarily bleeding) of therapeutic strategies (dual-antiplatelet therapy, percutaneous coronary interventions [PCIs]).

  • 5.

    The Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction and Global Registry of Acute Cardiac Events scores allow reliable prediction of 30-day, 6-month, and 12-month mortality rates in patients with ST-segment elevation MI (STEMI) and non–ST segment elevation MI (NSTEMI), respectively. Conversely, the risk of bleeding may be predicted according to the type of surgical procedure and patient-related factors (CRUSADE [Can Rapid Risk Stratification of Unstable Angina Patients Suppress Adverse Outcomes With Early Implementation of the ACC/AHA Guidelines] score).

  • 6.

    NSTEMI is the most common type of PMI. Unlike STEMI, it is often caused by an impaired balance between myocardial oxygen supply and demand in the absence of complete occlusion of a coronary vessel. Accordingly, the need for urgent revascularization is less stringent compared with STEMI, but prevention or prompt treatment of anemia, hypotension, hypoxia, pain, and tachycardia is of primary importance.

  • 7.

    PCI should always be considered in patients with perioperative STEMI, especially in patients with good life expectancy and moderate to large infarctions. Probably, only patients at low risk of death and at high risk of bleeding should be treated with medical therapy alone.

  • 8.

    Aspirin and low-dose oral β-blockers should be initiated within 24 hours in all patients with MINS unless contraindicated. A platelet receptor P2Y 12 inhibitor (clopidogrel, prasugrel, ticagrelor) may be added when bleeding risk is decreased sufficiently. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors should be started in patients with an ejection fraction of less than 40%, hypertension, or diabetes, including those with stable chronic kidney disease.

  • 9.

    A novel Web-enabled, “democracy-based” approach to consensus building has been used to summarize the best-quality and most widely agreed-on evidence about mortality reduction in different settings, including the noncardiac surgical perioperative period.

  • 10.

    Hemodynamic optimization, noninvasive ventilation, neuraxial anesthesia, selective decontamination of the digestive tract, and avoidance of β-blocker initiation shortly before surgical procedures may improve survival in patients undergoing noncardiac operations. Tranexamic acid may also be considered to reduce mortality rates, but further investigations are needed.

  • 11.

    Intraaortic balloon pump, volatile anesthetic agents, leukocyte-depleted red blood cell transfusions, protective ventilation, and vacuum-assisted closure therapy have been shown to reduce mortality rates in other settings, especially in cardiac surgical procedures. It is reasonable to assume that these interventions will have similar beneficial effects in noncardiac surgical settings.

  • 12.

    Further strategies that deserve to be investigated for a possible impact on survival in patients undergoing noncardiac surgery include nutritional support and vitamin supplementation, sedation, inspired oxygen fraction, high-flow nasal cannula oxygen, early renal replacement therapy, extracorporeal mechanical circulatory support, and point-of-care coagulation testing.

Despite technical improvements, major surgical procedures currently remain associated with high mortality and morbidity rates. In Europe, an overall 30-day mortality rate of 4% has been reported after major noncardiac operations, and the rate can reach 6% in high-risk populations.

About half of these deaths are attributable to major adverse cardiac events (MACEs) including nonfatal cardiac arrest, acute myocardial infarction (AMI), congestive heart failure (HF), or new cardiac arrhythmias. Cardiac complications are the most common causes of postoperative morbidity and death; they occur in up to 5% of adult patients undergoing surgical procedures and have a major impact on both length and costs of hospitalization. Perioperative myocardial infarction (PMI) is the most dangerous cardiac complication, and coronary artery disease (CAD) is a major determinant of both early and late mortality rates.

Perioperative Myocardial Infarction or Injury

According to the third universal definition, myocardial infarction (MI) is defined as a rise and fall in cardiac troponin (cTn) with at least one value above the 99th percentile upper reference limit (>0.014 ng/mL), together with at least one of the following:

  • Ischemic chest pain

  • New and significant electrocardiographic (ECG) changes such as ST segment or T-wave changes, left bundle branch block, or Q waves

  • New regional wall motion abnormalities (echocardiography)

  • Intracoronary thrombus (angiography or autopsy)

Myocardial injury after noncardiac surgery (MINS) is defined as (1) an elevation of postoperative troponin with an ischemic origin, (2) without other criteria of PMI, (3) that is prognostically relevant. Two different mechanisms lead to PMI: PMI type 1 is caused by rupture of a vulnerable coronary plaque or, uncommonly, by severe coronary vasospasm, leading to platelet aggregation, occlusive (ST-segment elevation [STEMI]) or nonocclusive (ST-segment depression [NSTEMI]) thrombus formation, and prolonged myocardial ischemia resulting in cell death. Plaque disruption is demonstrated in autopsy studies in approximately 50% of patients who died of PMI. PMI type 2 usually results from a sustained imbalance between myocardial oxygen supply (decreased) and demand (increased) combined with the presence of significant, obstructive, but not occlusive, CAD. Most patients with PMI type 2 have ST-segment depression (NSTEMI). Patients undergoing major operations are particularly prone to ischemic adverse events because of the surgery-associated inflammation and hypercoagulable state, as well as perioperative factors that increase the risk of plaque rupture (pain, hypertension, elevated levels of catecholamines), increase myocardial oxygen demand (hypertension, tachycardia, elevated left ventricular [LV] diastolic pressure), or decrease myocardial oxygen supply (blood loss, anemia, hypotension, hypoxia, tachycardia, coronary vasoconstriction). NSTEMI is the most common type of PMI. Compared with patients with STEMI, patients with NSTEMI are generally older, have multivessel or left main CAD more frequently, and often have multiple risk factors and comorbidities.

Epidemiology of Perioperative Myocardial Infarction

Perioperative myocardial infarction occurs in 0.88% of patients hospitalized for major noncardiac surgery. However, the incidence is widely variable according to the different populations, the type of surgical procedures (major or minor, vascular or nonvascular), the different definitions, and the troponin cutoff values used. Overall, the rate of PMI (especially STEMI) has declined in the past few years, thanks to many factors, including a careful risk stratification, more appropriate medical treatment and preoperative myocardial revascularization of higher risk patients, wider use of less invasive surgical approaches, and optimization of perioperative care. Most PMIs (≈80%) occur on the ward, especially 48 to 72 hours postoperatively; only 20% of PMIs develop in the operating room. However, the risk remains elevated during the first 2 postoperative weeks in patients undergoing orthopedic surgical procedures. Patients usually exhibit the strongest stress reaction within 72 hours postoperatively. Several factors may affect the myocardial oxygen delivery (DO 2 )–myocardial oxygen consumption (MVO 2 ) balance, including discontinuation of medications or decreased doses, preoperative diet, electrolyte disorders, pain, anxiety, stress reactions, bleeding, neuroendocrine changes (increased catecholamine release triggered by postoperative pain and other stresses), and alterations in the coagulation mechanism.

Diagnosis of Myocardial Ischemia and Infarction

The diagnosis of myocardial ischemia may be overlooked in the perioperative period. Indeed, some patients with myocardial injury do not meet the diagnostic criteria for PMI. Typical anginal symptoms occur in less than half of the patients, and the symptoms are often masked by analgesics, advanced age, and diabetes. Some patients experience vague chest pain, shortness of breath, hemodynamic instability, and palpitations. Whereas ST segment depression is quite common, occurring in approximately 30% of patients, 20% of patients have T-wave inversion, and 10% have ST-segment elevation. Conversely, ECG changes may be only minor or transient in approximately 40% of patients. However, continuous ECG monitoring is not widely used, and its implementation is difficult.

Because neither clinical symptoms nor ECG changes can guarantee early recognition of PMI , the best diagnostic tool is cTn, which is also a strong independent predictor of short-term and intermediate-term mortality. However, the interpretation of cTn increase can be troublesome in some cases because of the interference of renal dysfunction, cerebral disease, and inflammation.

Risk Stratification and Prevention

The treatment of patients who develop a cardiac ischemic complication during or after noncardiac surgical procedures starts with prevention through the identification of factors and markers that can predict a complicated course. Variables significantly associated with an increased risk of MACE are (1) patient specific: old age, high American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) class and cardiac risk indexes, kidney disease, and anemia and (2) surgery specific: type of procedure (emergency or urgent, major operation, particularly vascular) and intraoperative complications (severe hypotension, serious bleeding, increased heart rate).

Patient's Age

The risk of PMI and MINS is nearly doubled in patients older than 70 years, especially in men with cardiovascular (CV) risk factors. Mortality and death from CAD are strongly associated with age. As a consequence of the aging population, it is estimated that this problem will increase in future decades. Older patients are more frail, have multiple comorbidities, and exhibit more severe CAD. They also tend to present greater technical challenges during percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) because of heavier coronary artery calcification, tortuous anatomy in coronary and peripheral arteries, increased risk of procedure-related complications (e.g., contrast-induced nephropathy, vascular or neurologic complications), and reduced tolerance to bleeding.

Cardiac Risk Indexes

Two clinical indexes are used to estimate patients' risk of perioperative cardiac complications. The Revised Cardiac Risk Index (RCRI) incorporates six independent variables that predict the risk of cardiac complications: history of ischemic heart disease, HF, cerebrovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease (serum creatinine >2 mg/dL), and major operations (suprainguinal vascular, intrathoracic, and intraperitoneal). Perioperative risk of both cardiac complications (e.g., nonfatal AMI and nonfatal cardiac arrest) and death increases with index scores. For example, in a large cohort study including 782,969 patients, the in-hospital mortality rates were 1.4% for RCRI of 0, 2.2% for RCRI of 1, 3.9% for RCRI of 2, 5.8% for RCRI of 3, and 7.4% for RCRI of 4 and greater.

The RCRI is currently the most widely used cardiac risk stratification tool. However, it has several limitations, including its relatively low discriminative ability. In fact, although the RCRI has a moderately good ability to discriminate patients who will develop cardiac events from those who will not after mixed noncardiac surgical procedures (area under the curve [AUC] 0.75), it is less accurate in patients undergoing vascular surgical procedures (AUC, 0.64), and it is less able to predict all-cause mortality (median AUC, 0.62).

To overcome these limitations of RCRI, the National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (NSQIP) score was developed and validated on 211,410 surgical patients. This model includes age, ASA class, functional status, abnormal serum creatinine, and a novel and more appropriate organ-based categorization of surgery. Risk may be quantified by a risk calculator on the Internet. The discriminative or predictive ability of the NSQIP score is significantly better as compared with RCRI (AUC, 0.88), and it works well also in vascular surgical patients.

Kidney Disease

The most important comorbidity associated with poor postoperative outcome is chronic kidney disease (CKD). The rate of adverse cardiac events and the length of hospital stay increase significantly in patients with impaired renal function, especially in those with CKD from stage 3b onward (estimated glomerular filtration rate <45 mL/min).

Most of the CV disease risk factors, such as older age, diabetes mellitus, systolic hypertension, and low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, in addition to an inflammatory and thrombogenic milieu, are highly prevalent in patients with CKD. CAD and valvular disease are more common and severe in these patients, with half of deaths resulting from cardiac causes. CKD-associated anemia also reduces myocardial oxygen supply and is associated with cardiomyopathy. LV hypertrophy increases myocardial demand and evolves toward diastolic dysfunction, impairing subendocardial perfusion, and may be complicated by diastolic HF (the stiff ventricle is more vulnerable to preload and afterload changes, tachycardia, and loss of atrial kick during atrial fibrillation or other arrhythmias).

Some precautions may be useful to reduce the risk of perioperative cardiac events in patients with CKD. Stress testing can identify patients with CAD. Discontinuation of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor therapy for at least 10 hours before general anesthesia is recommended to reduce the risk of postinduction hypotension. Anemia may require preoperative blood transfusion, supplementation with iron, or administration of erythropoietin. Patients with end-stage kidney disease should undergo dialysis the day before the operation.

The main goals during surgical procedures include a mean arterial pressure greater than 65 mm Hg (or higher for the uncontrolled hypertensive patient) and adequate volume status. Particular attention should be paid to analgesic requirements in the perioperative period . Opioids may accumulate in patients with CKD, with increased risk of respiratory depression, but nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs are not recommended because of the risk of worsening renal function.

In patients with renal impairment, it is appropriate to measure baseline values of troponin to compare them with the postoperative values. Troponin values may be elevated in the setting of even mild kidney disease, probably reflecting microinfarctions or LV hypertrophy.

Anemia and Blood Transfusion

The prevalence of preoperative anemia is increasing in the surgical population, especially in older patients. In a large (39,309 patients) European study, anemia (defined according to the WHO criteria, e.g., hemoglobin [Hb] <13 g/dL in men and <12 g/L in nonpregnant women) was found in 31% of men and 26% of women. Preoperative anemia is commonly associated with comorbidities such as kidney disease, CAD, HF, diabetes mellitus, and hepatic cirrhosis and is known to be associated with increased mortality rates. In fact, anemia reduces DO 2 , increases heart rate, and may be complicated by hypotension.

After adjustment for major confounders including transfusion, preoperative anemia was strongly associated with a more than twofold increase in 90-day mortality rates, as well as increased postoperative intensive care unit (ICU) admission and greater use of ICU resources (hemodynamic monitoring, mechanical ventilation, inotropic and vasoactive agents). In particular, in-hospital mortality rates increase linearly with hematocrit reduction.

Although anemia is associated with mortality, transfusions may contribute to increased mortality rates (according to the “second hit” theory). However, recent data suggest that blood transfusions in the perioperative period may not necessarily be harmful and, particularly, that more liberal transfusion strategies are associated with reduced mortality rates in certain settings.

Patients at risk for anemia who are undergoing elective surgical procedures should be screened 4 to 8 weeks preoperatively, and the causes of anemia (e.g., blood loss, nutritional deficiencies, kidney disease, chronic or inflammatory diseases) should be identified and treated. Iron supplementation (oral or intravenous [IV], depending on iron status or tolerance and timing of the operation) is recommended (grade 1C recommendation) in patients with iron deficiency (serum ferritin <30 µg/L). The efficacy of iron supplementation in raising Hb concentration and decreasing perioperative transfusion rate is well demonstrated. If iron deficiency is ruled out, erythropoietin-stimulating agents administered up to an Hb concentration of 12 to 13 g/dL are suggested (grade 2A recommendation). The need for blood transfusions has been shown to be reduced by approximately 50% in patients treated with these drugs (data from pooled studies including mainly orthopedic surgical patients). The risk of thrombotic complications, particularly in patients with CAD, coronary stenting, or risk of venous thrombosis, should be considered.

Type of Surgical Procedure

The type of surgical procedure is a strong risk factor for MACE and death. Urgent or emergency operation has been well recognized as the strongest predictor of death, with an increase of more than three times in 30-day mortality rates. Unfortunately, this is a largely unmodifiable risk factor.

Perioperative myocardial infarction is more common in patients who are urgently hospitalized, particularly those undergoing vascular, thoracic, and noncardiac transplant surgery (which are all independent risk factors for PMI) compared with elective hospital admissions (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 2.38).

Vascular surgical procedures are associated with a two- to fourfold higher risk of adverse cardiac events (PMI, cardiac death) compared with other types of noncardiac operations. In fact, CAD is more common among patients undergoing vascular surgical procedures (with a prevalence ranging from 37% to 78%) than in other noncardiac surgical patients. Aortic cross-clamping and declamping, abrupt changes in systemic arterial pressure, fluid shifts, hypoxia induced by one-lung ventilation, acute anemia secondary to major bleeding, and inflammatory or hypercoagulable states induced by both surgical procedures and transfusions can trigger perioperative ischemia and MI, especially in patients with CAD, acute HF, or LV dysfunction .

In a recent retrospective investigation, surgical priority was found to be the only preoperative risk factor independently associated with PMI among patients undergoing major open vascular surgery (OR, 1.70). In this cohort of patients, the only postoperative variables associated with PMI were the nadir hematocrit and postoperative transfusion, thus suggesting that minimizing intraoperative blood loss and prioritizing early intraoperative transfusion may be potential ways for preventing myocardial damage.

The vascular procedure with the highest associated mortality rate is surgery for abdominal aortic aneurysmal rupture, followed by elective thoracoabdominal aortic replacement, lower extremity arterial bypass, and carotid endarterectomy. Patients requiring lower extremity amputation also have diffuse and severe CAD (up to 92% in a pathologic study). Accordingly, perioperative risk is high in these patients, with reported 30-day mortality rates of up to 17% and PMI as the leading cause of postprocedural death. Conversely, endovascular aortic repair (EVAR) procedures are associated with reduced myocardial stress and, accordingly, with a decreased incidence of perioperative myocardial damage. However, an increase in troponin levels after EVAR was associated with a higher long-term incidence of adverse cardiac events (49 vs. 15% in a follow-up period of 3 years).

Altered Preoperative Coagulation

A recent substudy of an international prospective cohort investigation of perioperative CV events in noncardiac surgery (VISION) found that the preoperative elevation of blood markers of hypercoagulability was associated with an increased risk of MINS in patients undergoing vascular surgery. In particular, as compared with patients with no myocardial injury, patients with MINS showed a significantly higher concentration of factor VIII (186 vs 155%; P = .006), von Willebrand factor activity (223 vs 160%; P < .001), von Willebrand factor concentration (317 vs 237%; P = .02), fibrinogen concentration (5.6 vs 4.2 g/L; P = .03), d -dimer (1680.0 vs. 1090.0 ng/mL; P = .04), plasmin-antiplasmin complex (747 vs 512 ng/mL; P = .002), and C-reactive protein (10 vs 4.5 mg/L; P = .02).

Cardiac Biomarkers

Preoperative Troponin

Cardiac troponin has high sensitivity for detection of small amounts of myocardial necrosis. Increased cTn levels indicate the presence of, but not the underlying reason for, myocardial injury. Besides AMI, troponin release may be associated with many other disorders, including HF, sepsis, and end-stage kidney disease ( Box 22.1 ). Regardless of the cause of cTn release, elevated cTn levels almost always imply a poor prognosis. Elevated preoperative cTn values are found in a variable proportion of patients undergoing vascular surgical procedures. In the largest trial available, the preoperative finding of increased cTn (high-sensitive troponin T, hsTnT) was present in up to 24% of patients, and it was independently associated with a significantly higher risk of PMI, cardiac death, and all-cause death. Moreover, hsTnT showed an additive value (AUC, 0.80) in association with cardiac risk index (AUC, 0.65) and natriuretic peptide levels (AUC, 0.76). A combined endpoint (including all-cause death, PMI, acute HF, and cardiac arrest) occurred in 9.4% of patients with hsTnT levels higher than 0.014 ng/mL compared with 1.9% in patients with hsTnT levels of up to 0.014 ng/mL ( P < .001). Possible causes of elevated cTn associated with adverse outcomes include silent myocardial ischemia or microinfarction, LV dysfunction, cerebrovascular disease, renal impairment, sepsis, pulmonary hypertension, and pulmonary embolism. The need to add cTn to routine preoperative tests performed in high-risk surgical patients is still debated. According to the 2014 European Society of Cardiology/European Society of Anaesthesiology (ESC/ESA) guidelines, the assessment of cTn in high-risk patients, both before and 48 to 72 hours after major surgical procedures, may be considered (class IIb, level B), even if the suboptimal specificity of this test should be taken into account. A practical approach in patients with preoperatively increased troponin levels involves a baseline transthoracic echocardiogram (primarily assessing ventricular function and regional wall motion), a cardiology consultation, and when feasible, deferral of surgery until the troponin levels fall ( Fig. 22.1 ). If it is not possible to postpone the procedure, a less-invasive surgical approach, targeted perioperative monitoring, and careful cardiac optimization should be recommended. Moreover, patients should be informed about the increased risk.

Box 22.1
Causes of Troponin Elevation in the Absence of Myocardial Ischemia

Cardiac Causes

  • Heart failure

  • Cardiac arrhythmias

  • Cardioversion

  • Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator shock

  • Myocarditis

  • Pericarditis

  • Cardiac amyloidosis

Noncardiac Causes

  • Sepsis and septic shock

  • Pulmonary embolism

  • Primary pulmonary hypertension

  • Pulmonary edema

  • Chronic kidney disease

  • Stroke

  • Subarachnoid hemorrhage

  • High dose of chemotherapy

  • Sympathomimetic drugs

Fig. 22.1, Preoperative risk stratification. BNP, Brain natriuretic peptide; cTn, cardiac troponin; NSQIP, National Surgical Quality Improvement Program; RCRI, Revised Cardiac Risk Index.

Postoperative Troponin

Evaluation of peak cTn level during the first 3 days after noncardiac surgical procedures improves the ability to identify patients with myocardial damage, even in the absence of symptoms or ECG changes. Moreover, this value is an independent predictor of 30-day mortality. In a recent large international cohort study involving 15,065 patients aged 45 years or older from five continents, an abnormal value of TnT (≥0.04 ng/mL) was found in 8% of patients within 3 days after noncardiac surgical procedures and was an independent predictor of 30-day mortality rates (9.8% vs 1.1%; adjusted ratio, 4.82). In another cohort study including 2216 participants older than 60 years of age who were undergoing medium-risk to high-risk noncardiac surgical procedures, an elevation of cTnI (>0.06 ng/mL) was recorded in 19% of patients. The 30-day mortality rate in these patients was 8.6% compared with 2.2% in patients without cTnI elevation ( P < .001). The relative risk of death was 2.4 for patients with lower increases in cTnI (0.07–0.59 ng/mL) and 4.2 for patients with higher increases (≥0.60 ng/mL). The median time to death was 12 days.

A recent meta-analysis of 11 studies including, overall, 2193 patients undergoing noncardiac, nonvascular surgery, found that postoperative troponin elevation was strongly associated with MACE at 30 days (OR, 5.92) and 1 year after surgery (adjusted OR, 3.0) and was a predictor of 30-day mortality (OR, 3.52) and an independent predictor of 1-year mortality (adjusted OR, 2.53).

A strong association between postoperative cTn elevation and both short- and long-term mortality was confirmed in two recent large observational investigations. Among 21,842 patients who underwent noncardiac surgery, multivariate analysis showed that peak postoperative hsTnT levels were correlated with 30-day mortality; in particular, 30-day mortality rates were 3%, 9.1%, and 29.6% in patients with an hsTnT value of 20 to 64 ng/L (hazard ratio [HR], 23.63), 65 to 999 ng/L (HR, 70.34), and 1000 ng/L or greater (HR, 222.01), respectively. An absolute hsTnT change of 5 ng/L or higher was associated with an increased risk of 30-day mortality (HR, 4.69).

A gradual association between postoperative TnT elevation and both short- and long-term mortality rates was also found among 12,882 vascular surgery patients, with the greatest hazard ratio for mortality within the first 10 months after surgery.

Postoperative cTn surveillance is cost effective in patients older than 45 years of age. According to the abovementioned evidence, it seems to be useful for early identification of patients at increased risk of myocardial injury and death and may also allow prompt initiation of appropriate therapeutic interventions. Optimization of perioperative care, including prevention of hypotension, tachycardia, anemia, hypoxia, pain, hypoglycemia, and hypothermia, may prevent postoperative troponin elevation and major cardiac events and potentially reduce mortality rates.

B-Type (Brain) Natriuretic Peptides

B-type (brain) natriuretic peptides (BNPs) are released from myocardium in response to multiple physiologic stimuli, including ischemia, myocardial stretch, inflammation, and other neuroendocrine triggers. Preoperative BNP levels are strong independent predictors of adverse short-term CV outcome . The preoperative addition of BNPs to the widely used risk stratification systems (RCRI and functional capacity assessment) leads to a significantly improved risk discrimination (AUC from 65% to 80%). The predictive value of N-terminal pro–brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) seems to be higher as compared with BNP, probably because it is more indicative of baseline conditions and is less affected by transient fluctuations in concentrations, given its longer half-life.

The optimal cutoffs of BNPs to predict CV events after surgical procedures are approximately 20 to 30 pg/mL for BNP (with 95% sensitivity and 44% specificity) and approximately 125 pg/mL for NT-proBNP. In a relatively small prospective study in high-risk patients undergoing major noncardiac operations, a preoperative BNP level greater than 40 pg/mL allowed identification of patients with an almost sevenfold increased risk of cardiac events. In particular, each 100-pg/mL increase in BNP levels was associated with a 35% increase in the relative risk of death . The utility of BNP testing in patients with kidney disease is controversial.

Finally, the negative predictive value of normal BNP levels (<20 pg/mL) to indicate a favorable postoperative outcome is as high as 96%, a finding suggesting that patients with normal levels of BNPs may proceed directly to surgery with no additional preoperative cardiac testing.

Postoperative (days 1–3) measurement of BNPs in addition to preoperative values significantly improve the prediction of death or nonfatal MI at both 30 days (OR, 3.7) and more than 180 days. An individual patient data meta-analysis including 2051 patients demonstrated that patients with postoperative BNP values of 0 to 250 pg/mL, greater than 250 to 400 pg/mL, and greater than 400 pg/mL reached a composite endpoint, including 30-day death and nonfatal MI at a rate of 6.6%, 15.7%, and 29.5%, respectively.

No prospective, randomized, controlled trials (RCTs) investigated the use of BNP-guided management in perioperative medicine. Nevertheless, according to a meta-analysis of RCTs that showed a 48% reduction in all-cause mortality rates with BNP-guided therapy in nonsurgical patients with HF, the following approach seems reasonable ( Fig. 22.1 ). In the presence of clinical risk factors and/or reduced physical capacity, measurement of BNPs should be performed 4 to 5 weeks before a scheduled major operation. If BNP levels are lower than the optimal cutoff (20 pg/mL), the patient can proceed with the surgical procedure without the need for further testing. Conversely, if BNP levels are higher than this threshold, further testing, primarily echocardiography and (BNP-guided) optimization of medical therapy (e.g., fluid restriction, diuretics, ACE inhibitors, nitrates, β-blocking agents) may be recommended. At the same time, worsening of renal function and hypotension, sometimes also induced by ACE inhibitors themselves, must be prevented. Specific therapeutic interventions may be considered in selected cases, for example, cardiac resynchronization therapy in patients with symptomatic NYHA functional class III disease with an LV ejection fraction (LVEF) of less than 35% and a large QRS complex (>120 ms) or transcatheter mitral clip implantation in patients with severe functional mitral regurgitation. Repeating assessment of BNPs shortly before the surgical procedure may allow for adjustment of perioperative treatment strategies (e.g., choice of surgical and anesthetic techniques, perioperative monitoring, fluid, drugs, and management of devices).

Perioperative Risk Indices

Intraoperative factors identified as independent predictors of adverse postoperative cardiac events are related to the surgical intervention (vascular surgical procedures), complexity (e.g., duration of the procedure, need for blood transfusions), and urgency, as well as to physiologic insults (tachycardia, prolonged hypotension or hypertension, hypothermia).

A meta-analysis of 14 studies, including mainly nonrandomized evidence, found a strong association between the need for blood transfusions and postoperative cardiac events. Unfortunately, it was not possible to define an accurate point estimate associated with the risk of adverse cardiac events. CV physiologic variables (e.g., >20 mm Hg fall in mean arterial pressure lasting >60 min, >30% increase in baseline systolic pressure, tachycardia in the recovery room, and transmitral flow propagation <45 cm/s) were shown to be independently associated with adverse outcomes in some of the included studies. In the only investigation that controlled for blood transfusions, the aforementioned association was not observed. This finding suggests that changes in physiologic variables (e.g., hypotension, tachycardia, and hypothermia) may jointly contribute with anemia to the increased cardiac risk observed in patients needing blood transfusions; however, these variables become independently predictive only in the absence of the need for blood transfusions.

The ANESCARDIOCAT score ( Box 22.2 ) stratifies patients undergoing elective or emergency noncardiac interventions of intermediate to high surgery-specific risk in four groups with different (very low, low, intermediate, and high) degrees of risk of major adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events (MACCE). This scoring system is based on the following factors: intraoperative hypotension, defined as 1 hour of a 20 mm Hg or greater decrease or a 20% change in mean arterial pressure; need for blood transfusion; history of CAD, HF, or cerebrovascular disease; CKD; and baseline ECG abnormalities, including LV hypertrophy, left bundle branch block, and ST-segment and T-wave abnormalities. The predicted rate of MACCE is 1.5% if none of these factors is present (very low risk), 4.5% in the presence of one factor (low risk), 8.9% in the presence of two factors (intermediate risk), and 20.6% when three or more factors are present (high risk). Among the foregoing predictors of postoperative adverse cardiac events, physiologic variables (and, to a certain extent, transfusions) are the main factors potentially modifiable by anesthesiologists and may thus offer an opportunity to improve patients' outcomes.

Box 22.2
From Sabaté S, Mases A, Guilera N, et al. Incidence and predictors of major perioperative adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events in noncardiac surgery. Br J Anaesth . 2011;107:879–890.
Seven ANESCARDIOCAT Score Factors a

a Risk of major adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events: 0 factors, 1.5%; 1 factor, 4.5%; 2 factors, 8.9%; ≥3 factors, 20.6%.

  • History of CAD

  • History of chronic CHF

  • History of cerebrovascular disease

  • Chronic kidney disease

  • Preoperative abnormal ECG (LV hypertrophy, LBBB, ST-T abnormalities)

  • Intraoperative hypotension (≥20 mm Hg or ≥20% fall in MAP for >1 hour)

  • Blood transfusion

CAD, Coronary artery disease; CHF, congestive heart failure; ECG, electrocardiogram; LBBB, left bundle branch block; LV, left ventricular; MAP, mean arterial pressure.

Postoperative Management

In patients at high risk for PMI, an electrocardiogram and a blood sample for troponin should be obtained at baseline, immediately postoperatively, and after 6 and 12 hours, as well as once a day for the first 3 postoperative days to detect early myocardial damage . As mentioned, ECG abnormalities such as ST-segment depression, transient ST-segment elevation, or prominent T-wave inversions may be present, but they are not required for the diagnosis of PMI or perioperative myocardial injury. Consultation with a cardiologist is always appropriate. Echocardiography is helpful for detecting the site and extension of regional wall motion abnormalities and to quantify global cardiac function.

Adequate analgesia and sedation are pivotal to prevent or minimize the deleterious effects of sympathetic stimulation on myocardial ischemia. Of course, hemodynamic stability plays a key role in preventing adverse cardiac events; adequate DO 2 should be maintained by adequate Hb levels (≥8 g/dL at least, although higher Hb values, e.g., between 9 and 10 g/dL, may be desirable to improve outcome).

Finally, active prevention of infection may help reduce the incidence of PMI, given both the “hemodynamic” changes induced by sepsis, or simply by fever (e.g., tachycardia), and the myocardial dysfunction associated with sepsis and septic shock.

Medications and Percutaneous Interventions to Prevent and Treat Perioperative Major Adverse Cardiac Events

Few RCTs evaluated the efficacy of medical or interventional treatments in reducing in-hospital and long-term outcomes after PMI in noncardiac surgical procedures. Accordingly, the following considerations about drug therapy and PCI for PMI are mainly extrapolated from evidence on management of acute coronary syndromes in the nonsurgical setting by adapting the strategies generally used in the coronary care unit (CCU) to the scenario of the perioperative ICU.

Statins

Statins (3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl–coenzyme A reductase inhibitors) contribute to plaque stability by means of reducing plaque size (through lipid lowering), modifying the physicochemical properties of the lipid core, and decreasing oxidative stress and inflammation (by inhibition of macrophage accumulation and metalloprotease production).

Among the drugs used for the treatment of PMI, statins are the easiest to handle. Indeed, contraindications (e.g., pregnancy, acute hepatic injury, porphyria) are uncommon, and high doses are usually safe (rhabdomyolysis and myopathy are infrequent) and well tolerated. However, critically ill patients with a complicated course should be closely monitored because they represent a population at increased risk of important statin side effects or drug interactions that may go unnoticed. In patients who require treatment with drugs that increase the plasma concentration of statins through interaction with CYP3A4 (e.g., calcium channel blockers, antifungal agents, and macrolides), the use of pravastatin or fluvastatin may be preferable because these statins are not primarily metabolized by CYP3A4. Conversely, rifampicin, phenobarbital, carbamazepine, and phenytoin induce both CYP3A4 and CYP2C9, thus leading to increased metabolism of liver-metabolized statins. Accordingly, the lipid-lowering effect of statins can be reduced by concomitant use of these drugs. Finally, when statin therapy is initiated or whenever any change in statin use occurs (except for pravastatin), careful monitoring of the international normalized ratio (INR) is recommended in patients taking warfarin because of the potential risk of bleeding complications.

Although the perioperative initiation of high-dose statins to prevent PMI seemed to be reasonable until recently, especially before vascular surgical procedures, new evidence suggests that such a strategy could be ineffective, if not even harmful. In the LOAD trial, 648 statin-naive patients at risk for cardiac events undergoing medium- to high-risk noncardiac surgery were randomized to receive atorvastatin 80 mg within 18 hours before surgery and 40 mg/day during the next 7 days, or placebo. No significant differences were observed in all-cause 30-day mortality, nonfatal MI, myocardial injury, and stroke. Although this trial was limited by lack of adequate statistical power and by high event rates, similar results have been recently found in cardiac surgery patients (see later) in whom the perioperative initiation of statins, in addition to being ineffective in preventing myocardial damage, was found to increase the risk of acute kidney injury. Adequately designed and powered RCTs should investigate the effectiveness of different statin regimens (e.g., longer preoperative courses) in preventing MACE after noncardiac surgery to draw a definitive conclusion about this topic.

β-Blockers

It is generally accepted that patients previously treated with β-blockers should receive these drugs in the perioperative period. β-Blocker therapy can be a double-edged sword, however. β-Blockers exert a cardioprotective effect by reducing MVO 2 , the rate of atrial and ventricular arrhythmias, and mechanical stress on vulnerable plaques. However, they may cause hypotension and hinder an increase in cardiac output (CO) when it is required. Probably because of this ambivalence, in a large trial (POISE) the intraoperative use of β-blockers in unselected patients was shown to lead to a reduction in PMI, as well as to dangerous increases in stroke and mortality rates.

The rationale for the use of β-blockers in patients with ongoing MI is twofold: in the early hours, these drugs reduce infarct size; in the following days, they have an antiremodeling effect. Regarding the use of β-blockers in the CCU, the recommendations of the American Heart Association (AHA) and those of the ESC differ.

American Heart Association guidelines suggest that it is reasonable to administer IV β-blockers at admission, unless they are contraindicated, in patients with MI who are hypertensive or have ongoing ischemia, and that an oral β-blocker should be initiated in any patient without contraindications within the first 24 hours (class 1, level A). The main contraindications to β-blocker therapy include symptomatic HF, low-output states, a PQ interval greater than 0.24 ms, second- or third-degree atrioventricular block without a cardiac pacemaker, active asthma, and the presence of risk factors for cardiogenic shock (e.g., late diagnosis [>12 h] of AMI, age >70 years, systolic arterial pressure <120 mm Hg, heart rate <60 beats/min, and heart rate >110 beats/min).

European Society of Cardiology guidelines are less categorical because most trials were conducted before the advent of modern reperfusion strategies. The role of routine early IV β-blocker administration is less clearly established, and higher IV doses may be associated with early hazard and increased mortality rates.

β-Blocker use has been associated with reduction of adverse events, including death, in patients who do not undergo reperfusion. Conversely, in patients who underwent myocardial revascularization, the benefits are limited to reductions of MI and angina, but at the price of increased risks of HF and cardiogenic shock.

Anemia is a cause for concern, particularly in older adults, when using β-blockers. In a large, single-center, propensity-matched cohort study including 4387 patients and focusing on acute surgical anemia, β-blocker therapy was found to be associated with a greater incidence of MACE (relative risk [RR], 2.38; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.43–3.96; P = .0009) only when Hb levels dropped by more than 35% from baseline. Anemia may worsen the perioperative adverse effects of β-blockade by further limiting DO 2 . Conversely, the ability of the heart to increase stroke volume (SV) at an Hb value between 9 and 10 g/dL is rate dependent. Given the circulatory abnormalities of older patients, anemia and decreased CO are among the potential mechanisms for the increased stroke rate found in the POISE trial.

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