Anemia Epidemiology and Pathogenesis Anemia is defined by the World Health Organization as a hemoglobin (Hb) concentration less than 13.0 g/dL in adult men and nonmenstruating women and less than 12.0 g/dL in menstruating women. The incidence of anemia in patients with…
## Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death across the spectrum of chronic kidney disease (CKD), with increased risk seen in individuals with reduced glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and in those with even minimally elevated urine albumin excretion. There…
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) alters the regulation of calcium, phosphate, and vitamin D homeostasis, leading to secondary hyperparathyroidism, elevations in serum fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), metabolic bone disease, soft tissue calcifications, and other metabolic derangements that have a significant…
Nutrient Metabolism in Kidney Disease As chronic kidney disease (CKD) progresses, the requirements and utilization of different nutrients change significantly. Protein energy wasting (PEW), defined as a state of decreased body stores of protein and energy fuels, is common in…
## Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a growing worldwide public health problem, characterized by increasing prevalence, high cost, and poor outcomes. The poor outcomes include progression of kidney disease leading to kidney failure, increased risk for acute kidney injury (AKI),…
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined as abnormal measurements of the actual or estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) for a minimum of 3 months ( Box 50.1 ), or situations where the GFR is normal but pathology in the kidney…
Introduction Risk factors for kidney disease span the social determinants of health (poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, pollution, discrimination), infections (HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, hepatitis, diarrheal illnesses, pneumonia), and non-communicable diseases (hypertension, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, chronic liver disease, cancers). It is, therefore,…
Epidemiology of CKD in the Elderly The prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) increases markedly with age, and the number of older adults with advanced kidney disease will continue to increase as longevity improves due to medical advances and improved…
Kidney Anatomy and Physiology During Normal Pregnancy Pregnancy produces dramatic changes in systemic hemodynamics, leading to alterations in total circulating blood volume, cardiac output, and systemic vascular resistance. The kidney itself undergoes marked changes during gestation, including alterations in kidney…
Kidney Development and Maturation Nephrogenesis begins in utero at approximately 5 to 6 weeks’ gestation and continues until nephron formation is complete at approximately 35 weeks’ gestation, although significant functional changes continue in the postnatal period. Fetal urine production commences…